European Integration

The politics of time

De politiek van tijd - Shaping Europe

Time, trains and time zones.

It’s that time of year again: the leaves are turning brown, trees are becoming bare, evenings are getting shorter, and the clocks go back an hour. This yearly ritual results in the same discussions and questions every time again: on which day do we change the clocks again? Do we move forward or backward? And isn’t it high time to abolish this biannual change altogether? While time itself may seem natural, the way we organize it is anything but. In fact, our current system is still relatively new! From the use of minutes and daylight saving time to time zones, the organization of time is of great practical importance, but it is also influenced by political forces. This article explores the structure of time and its political dimensions.

Standardized time and the postal service

Time, in itself, is a natural phenomenon, namely the continuous flow of moments. For thousands of years, humans have used various devices and methods to measure time. As early as 12,000 Before Christ, the Egyptians used sundials and water clocks to track time, while in sixth-century China, the incense clock became a common household and temple fixture. If you didn’t have access to these tools, you could always look at the position of the sun—provided you understood how solar time worked. This time could vary by several minutes even between neighboring villages. There was no such thing as (nationally) standardized time.

These differences posed a problem during the Industrial and Communication Revolution. The establishment of a national communication network – Britain’s national postal service – in 1780, was accompanied by the introduction of a uniform standard time. Every postal worker had to carry a timepiece that displayed the correct time according to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). GMT was named after Britain’s most accurate observatory at the time, located in Greenwich. It wasn’t until other developments, such as the expansion of the railway network, that standardized time became relevant for other citizens who were not postal workers. This process is known as the denaturalization of time.

Trains and time zones

In the United States (U.S.), the construction of a railway network also led to the creation of a standard time zone. The U.S. is much larger than Great Britain, spanning several degrees of longitude. Longitudes, which range from 0° to 180°, indicate the east-west position of a specific point. Since the Earth rotates around the sun in 24 hours, it’s practical to divide the globe into twenty-four time zones, each 15° wide. This way, the clock time approximately aligns with the time that can be read based on the position of the sun.

De politiek van tijd - Shaping Europe

When rail networks expanded across the European continent, the need to introduce time zones grew there as well. One of the decisive events was the establishment of a telegraph connection between the U.S. and Europe in the 1870s. The idea was proposed to divide the entire world into time zones. This, of course, involved some diplomatic wrangling. For instance, France was not pleased with GMT being the standard, as Greenwich was located in rival country Great Britain. The final division was approved during the International Meridian Conference in 1884. About time! However, this did not mean that every country immediately abandoned its local time in favor of standardized time. This was a gradual process that took, well, time.

Fortunately for France, since 1972, international timekeeping has transitioned to Universal Time Coordinated (UTC). UTC is based on the average of more than 450 atomic clocks located in over 80 laboratories worldwide, known as International Atomic Time. These atomic clocks are more accurate than the astronomical clocks previously used, as they measure the vibrations of atoms, which is an extremely consistent process. The deviation is just one second in over 30 billion years. While this is already impressive, even more precise thorium clocks are currently in development, with a deviation of only one second in more than 300 billion years.

Political dimension

Although time zones may seem objective, they have been politically charged from the very beginning. For instance, the adoption of the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian for world time was a symbol of British hegemony. The spread of this time zone system across the globe was closely tied to Europe’s view of global control. Europe, and especially Great Britain, held the power to establish the international time standard, ensuring that European interests and perspectives were prioritized. Other countries and regions had to adapt to this system. A telling example is the universally accepted world map, where Europe is positioned at the center. This shows that political dominance not only plays out on economic or political levels but also shapes abstract concepts like time.

Another way in which the European approach to time influences its structure is through the assumption of a linear perception of time. In this view, events are seen as a sequence that moves from the past, through the present, toward the future, often associated with the idea of progress. An alternative view is cyclical time, where time is understood – unsurprisingly – as circular or dynamic. In this concept, past, present, and future are not strictly separated, and events, seasons, and life stages are seen as recurring. These different understandings of time not only shape how we comprehend the world but also how we structure our lives and societies.

De politiek van tijd - Shaping Europe

Time zones today

Anyone looking at a world map of time zones will notice that they are not neatly divided into 15° segments. There are several explanations for this. For one, national borders do not always align with time zones, yet a country may choose to maintain the same time across its entire territory for practical reasons. It is common practice that if a country is 90% located in a specific time zone, the remaining 10% of that country also falls under it. Additionally, time zone boundaries are often drawn around densely populated areas. Only ten countries use multiple time zones within their borders. The country with the most time zones is France, due to its numerous overseas territories. France spans twelve time zones, and even thirteen during daylight saving time.

The boundaries of time zones have also been influenced by political motives or events. For instance, Spain used GMT before World War II but switched to Central European Time (CET) in 1940. This placed Spain in the same time zone as the areas of Europe occupied by Germany. Although Spain was neutral during World War II, this was a subtle sign of support. After the war, Spain, along with other occupied countries, did not revert to its original time zone. Some people see this as an explanation for the lifestyle that characterizes Spain, including late meals and siestas. Additionally, Spain is so wide that, if you look at the position of the sun, there is a one-hour difference between the easternmost and westernmost points of the country.

A prime example is China. Geographically, China spans five time zones, or 60°. However, since the Chinese Revolution in 1949, the country has adhered to only one time zone: China Standard Time (CST). In China itself, it is referred to as Beijing Time (BJT), as it uses the time of the capital as the standard. A significant reason for this is that it aligns with the image of a “unified and uniform China.” It also reflects the strong political centralization that characterizes China. In this case, time is thus both strongly political and symbolic.

In Morocco, time is adjusted for entirely different reasons. Every year, on the Sunday before Ramadan, the clocks are set back one hour. They are moved forward again on the Sunday after Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar and marks a sacred month of reflection and introspection for Muslims. This includes additional daily prayers and fasting from dawn to sunset. By turning the clock back one hour, sunset occurs “earlier,” allowing Muslims to break their fast “earlier” and enjoy iftar.

Additionally, several countries have changed their time zones to emphasize their independence from other nations or regions. For example, North Korea established its own time zone, called Pyongyang Time (UTC+8:30), in 2015 to diverge from the time zone of Japan and South Korea (UTC+9), creating a thirty-minute difference. However, in 2018, North Korea reversed this change as a symbol of rapprochement and unification during a period of dialogue with South Korea.

The North and South Poles are a unique case. If you walk around either pole, you theoretically cross all twenty-four time zones. For this reason, both poles do not have an official time zone. The sun is also not a reliable time indicator, as it only rises once every six months. Antarctica has no permanent population, but many scientists and support staff do stay there. For practical reasons, they adhere to New Zealand time, as their supplies come from there. In this case, the reason is not political, but practical.

De politiek van tijd - Shaping Europe

Daylight Saving Time in Europe

Countries can deviate from standard time in the summer by implementing Daylight Saving Time (DST), in which the clock is set forward by one hour in the spring and set back again in October. The original purpose of DST was energy conservation, a measure first introduced by Germany during World War I to save coal. During the interwar period, DST was abolished, but it was reinstated during World War II when the Germans brought it back. As mentioned earlier, the areas occupied by Germany also switched to Central European Time during this period. After World War II, DST was discontinued again but made a comeback during the oil crisis of 1977.

Since 1980, the system has been regulated at the European level by Directive 2000/84/EC, but discussions flare up every year. There is a time to come and a time to go, and many people believe that it is time for DST to go. On September 12, 2019, the European Commission proposed to stop the clock changes between winter and summer time. The reason for this is that both citizens and the European Parliament, along with a growing number of Member States, are questioning the system. A public consultation involving 4.6 million European citizens showed that a remarkable 84% supported the abolition of DST.

Although Member States may choose their time zone, harmonized regulations in this area are crucial for the proper functioning of the internal market. This is clearly emphasized in the Commission’s proposal. Another argument is the negative impact on our biological clocks, as well as the fact that DST no longer leads to a reduction in energy consumption. However, an argument against abolition is that having an extra hour of daylight in the summer is beneficial for people’s health, and this also benefits the tourism sector. In 2021, the European Parliament voted on the proposal, supporting the end of DST in 2021. Nevertheless, the European Council has not yet taken a position, leaving the matter stalled and a definitive change has not (yet) occurred since then.

Time and the economy

As previously mentioned, harmonized regulations are crucial for the functioning of the European internal market. Extensive research has been conducted on the influence of time on trade. A study has shown that the impact of time zones is such that it can be considered an “independent driving force” in global trade patterns. Additionally, research into mutual cross-border investments indicates that time differences can have a significant negative impact on the destination of such investments. The effect is relatively small when it comes to trade, compared to investments. The researchers also raise the question of whether this impact will diminish with the advent of new information technology. They anticipate that this is unlikely to be the case, as the impact of time differences has only increased over time.

De politiek van tijd - Shaping Europe

One country that changed its time zone for economic reasons is Samoa. On December 29, 2011, the country switched from UTC-11 to UTC+13. Due to this significant difference, Samoa skipped the date of December 30.The reason for this change was that the government wanted to promote trade and cooperation with countries like New Zealand, Australia, and China, which were already a day ahead of Samoa. Before 2011, there was a time difference of twenty-one hours with Sydney. As a result, traders had to take into account not a two but a three day weekend. 

Thus, time is not only a physical phenomenon but also a social and political construct shaped by historical, economic, and geopolitical factors. Consequently, the structuring of time remains subject to change and debate. This trend would continue in the EU if it decides to abolish Daylight Saving Time. Only time will tell.

Julia is studying Liberal Arts and Sciences at Utrecht University, majoring in International Relations from a Historical Perspective. She has also completed a bachelor’s degree in Dutch Law.

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